Ultrasound: Carotid Intima-Media Thickness and Plaque (2D–3D)
Fig. 4.1 Examples of ultrasound image (a) and of echo-tracking radio-frequency image (b) of the carotid vessels The normal IMT values are influenced by age and sex. IMT normal values…
Damage of Retinal Arterioles in Hypertension
Grade Features 1 Mild generalized retinal arteriolar narrowing 2 Definite focal narrowing and arteriovenous nipping 3 Signs of grade 2 retinopathy plus retinal hemorrhages, exudates, and cotton wool spots 4…
Evaluation of Cardiac Damage in Hypertension: Electrocardiography
Amplitude First author of study Year of study publication Limb lead voltage (R I–S I) + (S III–R III) >16 mm Lewis 1914 R I + S III >25 mm Gubner 1943 R…
Questionnaires for Cognitive Function Evaluation
Fig. 18.1 Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) (Copyright Z. Nasreddine MD. Reproduced with permission. Copies are available at www.mocatest.org) The MoCA test showed excellent sensitivity and specificity in identifying VCI and…
MRI/CT: Evaluation of Brain Damage in Hypertension
White matter hyperintensity Cerebral microbleeds Recent small subcortical infarct Lacunes Dilated perivascular space Usual diameter Variable ≤10 mm ≤20 mm 3–15 mm ≤2 mm Comment Located in the white…
Glomerular Filtration Rate in Renal Damage
Fig. 15.1 Relationship between serum creatinine, glomerular filtration rate, creatinine clearance, and stages of CKD Recently, serum levels of cystatin C, a free housekeeping protein ubiquitous in many cellular systems,…
Evaluation of Cardiac Damage in Hypertension: Echocardiography
LV mass indexed to BSA, g/m2 < 96 in women,< 116 in men (when BMI 30 kg/m2) LV mass indexed to height 2.7, g/m 2.7 < 45 in women,<49 in men (when BMI > 30…
Ankle-Brachial Index (ABI)
Mild stenosis: 0.9–0.7 Moderate stenosis: 0.6–0.5 Severe stenosis: lower than 0.5 Measuring an ABI has also been used in large-scale studies to detect PAD in the population or at the…
Other Techniques for Neurological Damage Evaluation
The measurement of VMR by TCD has been shown to be a valuable noninvasive instrument for both practical clinical work and pathophysiological research in the field of stroke and cerebrovascular…
Other Methods to Assess Renal Damage
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015Enrico Agabiti Rosei and Giuseppe Mancia (eds.)Assessment of Preclinical Organ Damage in Hypertension10.1007/978-3-319-15603-3_16 16. Other Methods to Assess Renal Damage Josep Redon1, 2 , Gernot Pichler1 and Fernando Martinez1 (1) Hypertension Unit, Internal Medicine,…
