Supraclavicular Operative Approach for Thoracic Outlet Syndrome



Supraclavicular Operative Approach for Thoracic Outlet Syndrome



Robert W. Thompson


The supraclavicular approach is a mainstay in the surgical treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS), providing excellent exposure for safe and definitive decompression of the relevant neurovascular structures and the flexibility to manage the spectrum of circumstances that may be encountered with each type of TOS.


Supraclavicular decompression is recommended for patients with neurogenic TOS when there is a sound clinical diagnosis, substantial disability (symptoms interfering with daily activities and/or work), and an insufficient response to targeted physical therapy, especially if there has been a positive response to an anterior scalene muscle block with local anesthetic. Supraclavicular decompression is also ideal for patients with persistent or recurrent symptoms of neurogenic TOS following a previous operation. For patients with symptoms of neurogenic TOS referable to the subcoracoid (pectoralis minor) space, pectoralis minor tenotomy is an important supplement to supraclavicular thoracic outlet decompression, or as an isolated procedure when this site is the dominant location of nerve compression symptoms.


Surgical treatment also is recommended for venous TOS within several weeks after a subclavian vein effort thrombosis that has undergone thrombolytic therapy, and in patients with previous axillary–subclavian vein thrombosis that has remained symptomatic despite anticoagulation and restricted activity. In these situations, the supraclavicular approach is coupled with an additional medial infraclavicular incision to ensure complete resection of the anterior first rib and to facilitate direct subclavian vein reconstruction when appropriate.


Finally, surgical treatment based on supraclavicular decompression is recommended for all patients with arterial TOS and subclavian artery aneurysms or occlusive lesions, which typically occur in conjunction with a cervical rib. This includes direct arterial reconstruction for subclavian aneurysms that have already produced distal emboli, those associated with imaging evidence of intimal ulceration or mural thrombus, and/or those greater than twice the normal diameter of the subclavian artery.


Certain aspects of the supraclavicular approach are common to the treatment of all three types of TOS, and they will be addressed in the succeeding description of treating neurogenic TOS.



Management of Neurogenic Thoracic Outlet Syndrome


Positioning and Initial Exposure


The patient is positioned supine on an operating table compatible with C-arm portable fluoroscopy. After the induction of general endotracheal anesthesia, the head of the bed is elevated 30 degrees, and the neck is extended and turned to the opposite side. A small inflatable cushion is placed behind the shoulders. The neck, chest, and affected upper extremity are prepped into the field, with the arm wrapped in stockinette to permit free range of movement during the operation and easy access to the forearm and wrist. A transverse neck incision is made parallel to and just above the clavicle, beginning at the lateral edge of the sternocleidomastoid muscle and extending to the anterior edge of the trapezius muscle. The incision is carried through the subcutaneous layer, subplatysmal flaps are developed to expose the scalene fat pad, and the omohyoid muscle is divided.



Mobilization of the Scalene Fat Pad


One of the keys to simplifying the supraclavicular exposure is proper mobilization and lateral reflection of the scalene fat pad. This begins with detachment of the fat pad along the lateral edge of the internal jugular vein and the superior edge of the clavicle, followed by gentle fingertip dissection in the underlying tissue plane directly over the anterior scalene muscle. The thoracic duct is usually observed near the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins (most consistently present on the left side), where it is ligated and divided. The fat pad is progressively elevated in a medial to lateral direction, exposing the surface of the anterior scalene muscle along with the phrenic nerve, which passes in a lateral to medial direction along the muscle surface. The remaining inferior and superior attachments of the fat pad are divided, and small blood vessels and lymphatics are secured between ligatures.


The fat pad may then be rotated laterally until there is ample exposure of the anterior scalene muscle and phrenic nerve, the brachial plexus nerve roots (posterior and lateral to the anterior scalene muscle), and the middle scalene muscle (behind the brachial plexus). The lateral aspect of the first rib is palpated and visualized, and the long thoracic nerve is observed as it perforates the middle scalene muscle to course across and past the first rib. Direct visualization of the above-mentioned structures represents the first of six critical views to be obtained during supraclavicular decompression (Box 1). The scalene fat pad is then held in position with several retraction sutures and kept moist during the remainder of the procedure. The exposure is maintained with a Henley self-retaining retractor (Figure 1A and B).



BOX 1   Critical Views During Supraclavicular Thoracic Outlet Decompression




View of the operative field after lateral reflection of the scalene fat pad, with visualization of the anterior scalene muscle, phrenic nerve, brachial plexus, subclavian artery, middle scalene muscle, and long thoracic nerve.


View of the lower part of the anterior scalene muscle where it attaches to the first rib, with space sufficient to allow a finger to pass behind the anterior scalene muscle and in front of the brachial plexus and subclavian artery, prior to division of the anterior scalene muscle insertion from the top of the first rib.


View of the upper part of the anterior scalene muscle at the level of the transverse process of the cervical spine, in relation to the C5 and C6 nerve roots, prior to division of the origin of the anterior scalene muscle.


View of the insertion of the middle scalene muscle on the first rib, with each of the five nerve roots of the brachial plexus and the subclavian artery retracted medially and the long thoracic nerve retracted posteriorly, prior to division of the insertion of the middle scalene muscle from the top of the lateral first rib.


View of the posterior neck of the first rib, with the T1 nerve root passing from underneath the rib to join the C8 nerve root to form the inferior trunk of the brachial plexus, prior to division of the posterior first rib.


View of the anterior portion of the first rib, with placement of the rib shears medial to the scalene tubercle, prior to division of the anterior first rib.




Anterior Scalenectomy


Attention is next turned to the insertion of the anterior scalene muscle upon the first rib, which is isolated by blunt dissection under direct visualization in order to avoid injury to the phrenic nerve, the subclavian artery, and the brachial plexus nerve roots (see Figure 1C). The anterior scalene muscle is then sharply divided from the bone under direct vision with curved scissors. The inferior edge of the anterior scalene muscle is lifted superiorly and detached from the underlying subclavian artery, brachial plexus nerve roots, and extrapleural fascia. Any scalene minimus muscle fibers present are also divided. The anterior scalene muscle is passed underneath and medial to the phrenic nerve, and dissection of the muscle is carried superiorly to its origin on the C6 transverse process, which is easily palpated in the upper aspect of the operative field (see Figure 1D and E). The anterior scalene muscle is then divided under direct vision and removed. Anomalous fibrofascial bands may be observed after the anterior scalene muscle is resected. They typically pass in front of the lower brachial plexus nerve roots. These structures are also resected as they are encountered to ensure thorough decompression and full nerve root mobility.

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Jul 15, 2018 | Posted by in CARDIOLOGY | Comments Off on Supraclavicular Operative Approach for Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

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